“Neurosciences”  

Neuroscience

  Neuroscience is the scientific discipline that studies the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, pathology of the nervous system, and psychology.
  In our body, Neuroscience includes all the structures, functions, developments, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, pathology of the nervous system, and psychology.
  Examples of subsets, concepts, subjects and related entities of neuroscience include:

• Connectome & Connectomics

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“Neurotransmitters (Neurotransmitter Agents)”  

Neurotransmitter Agents

  In our body, Neurotransmitters (Neurotransmitter Agents) are the endogenous biochemicals or are exogenous substances, that act as nervous system messages, which can relay, amplify, and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell.

Neurotransmitter

  A molecule is a when it establishes these criteria (some more essential than others) for inclusion:

• Evidence that the substance, together with the enzymes and related chemical machinery required for its synthesis are present within the presynaptic neurons
• Evidence that the substance is released by a calcium-dependent mechanism in response to presynaptic depolarization, and that it exerts an effect on postsynaptic cells
• The presence of a mechanism to terminate the action of the transmitter (e.g.., degradation, high-affinity uptake), and the availability of a relatively specific antagonist
• The presence on postsynaptic cells of a receptor that specifically binds the putative neurotransmitter

GABA, glutamate, acetylcholine, and glycine satisfy al the criteria to be neurotransmitters.

  In our body, the three major classes of Neurotransmitters may be amines, amino acids, or neuropeptides and range in complexity from the two carbon transmitter glycine to large proteins.

In our body, Neurotransmitter types include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor functions.

In our body, Neurotransmitters include:

• adrenergic agents (adrenergics)

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“Neuropeptides”  

Neuropeptide

  In our body, Neuropeptides, as nerve tissue peptides, are small protein-like molecules (peptides), ranging in length from ~3 to 40 amino acid residues.

In our body, Neuropeptides are required for physiological functions as neurotransmitters in the nervous system and are essential as peptide hormones for endocrine regulation of target biological systems, and become critical mediators of cell-to-cell communication in neuroendocrine systems when used by neurons to communicate with each other as intercellular messengers, with the specific unique neuropeptide sequences defining the specific biological action.

In our body, many Neuropeptides may also be hormones released by non-neuronal cells outside of the nervous system.

In our body's brain, Neuropeptides are released by either neurons or by non-neuronal cells as hormonal neuronal signaling molecules, which may influence the activity of the brain in specific ways altering particular brain functions, like analgesia, reward, food intake, learning and memory.
  Examples of subsets, concepts, subjects and related entities of neuropeptides include:

angiotensins Angiotensin I, Angiotensin II, Angiotensin III Bombesin bradykinin calcitonin calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) Carnosine Cholecystokinin Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide FMRFamide Galanin Galanin-Like Peptide Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) gastrins hypocretins (orexins) kisspeptins Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones Motilin Neuropeptide Y Neurophysins neurotensin omega-Agatoxin IVA Opioid Peptides Pancreatic Polypeptide Peptide PHI pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide Secretin tachykinins eledoisin kassinin neurokinin A neurokinin B physalaemin substance P Urocortins vasoactive intestinal peptide (vasointestinal peptide)

Hypothalamic Hormones Pituitary Hormone Release Inhibiting Hormones MSH Release-Inhibiting Hormone Prolactin Release-Inhibiting Factors Somatostatin Somatostatin-28 Pituitary Hormone-Releasing Hormones Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Buserelin Goserelin Leuprolide Nafarelin Triptorelin Pamoate Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Sermorelin Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Pro-Opiomelanocortin Adrenocorticotropic Hormone alpha-Endorphin alpha-MSH beta-Endorphin beta-Lipotropin beta-MSH Corticotropin-Like Intermediate Lobe Peptide gamma-Endorphin gamma-Lipotropin gamma-MSH melanocortins adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Cosyntropin melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) alpha-MSH beta-MSH gamma-MSH Prolactin-Releasing Hormone vasopressins arginine vasopressin Deamino Arginine Vasopressin Lypressin Felypressin Ornipressin More examples of neuropeptide include: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

  The genes in the neuropeptides gene group include:

ADCYAP1 gene, aka adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide 1 ADM gene, aka adrenomedullin ADM2 gene, aka adrenomedullin 2 AGRP gene, aka agouti related neuropeptide AGT gene, aka angiotensinogen APLN gene, aka apelin AVP gene, aka arginine vasopressin CALCA gene, aka calcitonin related polypeptide alpha CALCB gene, aka calcitonin related polypeptide beta CCK gene, aka cholecystokinin CHGA gene, aka chromogranin A CRH gene, aka corticotropin releasing hormone GAL gene, aka galanin and GMAP prepropeptide GALP gene, aka galanin like peptide GAST gene, aka gastrin GHRH gene, aka growth hormone releasing hormone GHRL gene, aka ghrelin and obestatin prepropeptide GIP gene, aka gastric inhibitory polypeptide GNRH1 gene, aka gonadotropin releasing hormone 1 GNRH2 gene, aka gonadotropin releasing hormone 2 GRP gene, aka gastrin releasing peptide HCRT gene, aka hypocretin neuropeptide precursor IAPP gene, aka islet amyloid polypeptide INS gene, aka insulin IGF1 gene, aka insulin like growth factor 1 IGF2 gene, aka insulin like growth factor 2 KISS1 gene, aka KiSS-1 metastasis suppressor KNG1 gene, aka kininogen 1 LEP gene, aka leptin MLN gene, aka motilin NMS gene, aka neuromedin S NMU gene, aka neuromedin U

NPB gene, aka neuropeptide B NPFF gene, aka neuropeptide FF-amide peptide precursor NPPA gene, aka natriuretic peptide A NPPB gene, aka natriuretic peptide B NPPC gene, aka natriuretic peptide C NPS gene, aka neuropeptide S NPVF gene, aka neuropeptide VF precursor NPW gene, aka neuropeptide W NPY gene, aka neuropeptide Y NTS gene, aka neurotensin OXT gene, aka oxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide PDYN gene, aka prodynorphin PENK gene, aka proenkephalin PMCH gene, aka pro-melanin concentrating hormone PNOC gene, aka prepronociceptin POMC gene, aka proopiomelanocortin PPY gene, aka pancreatic polypeptide PRL gene, aka prolactin PRLH gene, aka prolactin releasing hormone PTHLH gene, aka parathyroid hormone like hormone PYY gene, aka peptide YY RLN1 gene, aka relaxin 1 RLN2 gene, aka relaxin 2 RLN3 gene, aka relaxin 3 SCT gene, aka secretin SST gene, aka somatostatin TRH gene, aka thyrotropin releasing hormone UCN gene, aka urocortin UCN2 gene, aka urocortin 2 UCN3 gene, aka urocortin 3 UTS2 gene, aka urotensin 2 VIP gene, aka vasoactive intestinal peptide

Plus these subsets of neuropeptide genes in the endogenous ligand family include:

Endothelins (EDN)

Tachykinin precursors (TAC)

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“Neurosecretory Systems (Neuro-Endocrine System)”  

NeuroEndocrine System (Neurosecretory Systems)

  In our body, the Neuro-Endocrine System (Neurosecretory Systems) is the body system involved in the communication between the nervous system and endocrine system (glandular system) including; the neurons that stimulate, produce and secrete these peptide hormones in tissues, glands and organs involved in the feedback loops.

Neurosecretory Systems (Neuro-Endocrine System)

  In our body, the primary function of the Neuro-Endocrine System (NES) is to govern homeostasis by regulating hormone secretion from the pituitary.

In our body, the Neuro-Endocrine neurons are located within the preoptic area, the paraventricular nucleus, the supraoptic nucleus, and the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus.
  Examples of some members in the neurosecretory system include:

• circumventricular organs
  • area postrema
  • median eminence
  • posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
  • subcommissural organ
  • subfornical organ
• Glomus Tympanicum
• hypothalamo-hypophyseal system
  • median eminence
  • pituitary gland
    • anterior pituitary gland
    • intermediate pituitary gland (pituitary pars intermedia)
    • posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
• pineal gland

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“Neuroanatomy (Neuranatomy)”  

Neuroanatomy

  In neuroscience, Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy of the nervous system as a specialty or discipline. **

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“Nerve Growth Factors (Neurotrophic Factors)”  

Nerve Growth Factor (NGF)

  In the body, the nerve tissue protein, Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) belongs to family of factors known as neurotrophins, is a small secreted amino acid complex important for the growth (a growth factor), maintenance, and survival of certain target neurons (nerve cells), such as the found in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
  In the body, a Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) functions as a signaling molecule, and play a role as a sympathetic and sensory nerve growth factor, with additional activities both within and outside the nervous system.
  Examples of some nerve growth factors include:

• nerve growth factor (NGF)
• brain-derived neurotrophic factor
• ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)
• Glia Maturation Factor
• Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factors
  • Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor
  • Neurturin
• Nerve Growth Factor
• Neuregulins
  • Neuregulin-1
• Neurotrophin 3
• pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide

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“Neurochemistry”  

  Neurochemistry is the study of the composition, chemical structures, and chemical reactions of the nervous system (nervous organ system). **

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